3) easy breeding species under controlled conditions,\nspecies that can develop in the available laboratory space, plants up to 50 cm\nhigh;<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4) potentially sensitive to climate change;<\/p>\n\n\n\n
5) known general biology.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The selected species are therefore:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- Butterfly: Polyommatus icarus<\/em>,<\/li>
- Ants: Lasius niger<\/em>,<\/li>
- Host plants: Trifolium repens, Lotus corniculatus<\/em>.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n
![\"\"](\"http:\/\/www.explorecology.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/07\/IMG_08192-1024x768.jpg\")
Trifolium repens<\/em> meadow and Polyommatus icarus<\/em> butterfly \u00a9 F. Mallard <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n Biology and ecology of the Common Blue butterfly Polyommatus icarus<\/em>\n(Rottemburg, 1775) (Lepidoptera<\/em>, Lycaenidae<\/em>)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Latin name :<\/strong> Polyommatus icarus<\/em>\n(Rottemburg, 1775)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Vernacular names: <\/strong>Common Blue <\/p>\n\n\n\n
Taxonomy:<\/strong> Kingdom: Animalia<\/em>, Phylum: Arthropoda<\/em>, Class:\nInsecta<\/em>, Order: Lepidoptera<\/em>, Family: Lycaenidae<\/em>, Genus: Polyommatus<\/em>,\nSpecies: Polyommatus icarus<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Species identification : <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
- Imago identification<\/strong><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Upperside of wings: marked sexual dimorphism; blue-purple with a thin black\nborder for the male; brown to orange close to margin on anterior and posterior\nwings for female (Hofmann,\n2007 ; Lewington & Tolman, 2014 ; Martir\u00e9 <\/a>et al.<\/em><\/a>, 2016)<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n
![\"\"](\"http:\/\/www.explorecology.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/07\/Polyommatus-icarus3-1024x768.jpg\")
Upperside of wings of Polyommatus icarus<\/em> \u00a9 F. Mallard <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n Underside of the wings: light brown, black dots circled in white, line of\norange lunules near the margin, white fringes; forewing at 1 or 2 cell points;\nposterior wing with a white triangle, postdiscal line of regular black dots (Lewington\n& Tolman, 2014 ; Martir\u00e9 <\/a>et al.<\/em><\/a>, 2016)<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n
![\"\"](\"http:\/\/www.explorecology.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/07\/Polyommatus-icarus4.jpg\")
Underside of wings of Polyommatus icarus<\/em> \u00a9 F. Mallard <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n Wingspan: 2.7 cm to 3.4 cm (Hofmann,\n2007)<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n
- Caterpillar identification<\/strong><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n
13 mm in length (Bellmann,\n2006)<\/a>, stocky, green with dark green dorsal line and whitish line on the\nflanks (Carter\n& Hargreaves, 2015<\/a>)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Geographic distribution: <\/strong>Very common in France and Europe (Lewington & Tolman, 2014 ; Carter & Hargreaves, 2015 ; Martir\u00e9 et al.<\/em>, 2016 ; Haahtela et al.<\/em>, 2017)<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Biotope: <\/strong>Diversity of habitats from open to semi-shaded natural environment, dry to mesophilic from sea-level up to 3000 m altitude (dunes, wastelands, meadows, roadsides, agricultural areas, gardens in the city, … ) (Hofmann, 2007 ; Leraut, 2003 ; Lewington & Tolman, 2014 ; Carter & Hargreaves, 2015 ; Martir\u00e9 et al.<\/em>, 2016 ; Haahtela et al.<\/em>, 2017)<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Life cycle:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Polyommatus icarus<\/em> is a\npolyvoltine species that is to say that it presents several successive\ngenerations each year.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Voltinism of this species is related to\naltitude and latitude: univoltine, June \/ July in cold climate in northern\nEurope and at altitude in mountain, bivoltin to trivoltin May \/ early October\nin most of the Europe, trivoltin at the level of the sea, in the south of\nEurope, in the canaries, it is observed every month <\/em>(Lewington\n& Tolman, 2014 ; Martir\u00e9 <\/a>et al.<\/em><\/a>, 2016)<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The life cycle of Polyommatus icarus<\/em> is divided into 8 stages\nincluding the four stages of metamorphosis of butterfly: egg, caterpillar,\nchrysalis and imago. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
![\"\"](\"http:\/\/www.explorecology.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/07\/Life-cycle-butterfly-1024x952.png\")
Life Cycle of Polyommatus icarus<\/em> \u00a9 explorecology.com <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n Stage 1. Egg-laying on the host plant<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
The female lays whitish and hemispherical eggs, arranged in isolation from\neach other, on the flowers, stems and upper surface of the leaves of the host\nplants at the beginning and end of summer. (Carter\n& Hargreaves, 2015)<\/a> The host plants are legumes (Fabaceae<\/em>)\nexclusively Papilionaceae<\/em> mainly Lotus corniculus<\/em> (Bellman,\n2006<\/a>; Lewington\n& Tolman, 2014<\/a>), Medicago lupulina<\/em> (Lewington\n& Tolman, 2014<\/a>) but also Trifolium repens<\/em>, Onoris spinosa<\/em>,\nMedicago sativa<\/em>, (Bellman,\n2006<\/a>), and various Galega sp<\/em>.), Lotus sp<\/em>., Medicago\nsp.<\/em>, Trifolium sp<\/em>., Melilotus sp<\/em>. Gesnista sp<\/em>.,\nAstragalus sp<\/em>., Onobrychis sp.<\/em>, Anthyllis sp.<\/em>, Coronilla\nsp.<\/em> (Bellman,\n2006; Lewington & Tolman, 2014 ; Carter & Hargreaves, 2015 ;\nMartir\u00e9 <\/a>et al<\/em><\/a>., 2016 ;\nHaahtela <\/a>et al.<\/em><\/a>, 2017).<\/a>\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Stage 2. Caterpillar stage<\/strong> <\/p>\n\n\n\n
Eggs hatch in a caterpillar after one week during the period May to early\nOctober (Bellmann,\n2006;<\/a> Carter\n& Hargreaves, 2015)<\/a>. During this stage which lasts about 6 weeks (Carter\n& Hargreaves, 2015)<\/a>, there is a considerable increase in the volume of\nthe caterpillar punctuated by completion of several moults. It feeds mainly on leaves\nand flowers of the host plants. The caterpillar’s head is strongly sclerified\nwith six simple eyes called stemmates and a rudimentary antenna in the center\nof chewing mouthparts. The caterpillar has a fairly regular trunk consisting of\nfourteen segments or urites, the first of which have pairs of articulated legs\nand the latter merge to form a single anal segment (Bellmann,\n2006)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Etape n\u00b03. Recovery of the caterpillar by the ants <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Polyommatus icarus<\/em> is a\nmyrmecophilous species, that is, it is an optional association with ant species\nthat will protect caterpillars occasionally <\/em>(Pierce <\/a>et al.<\/em><\/a>, 2002)<\/a>.\nThe caterpillar secreted by Newcomer’s dorsal gland a sweet liquid (sucrose,\nglucose, fructose and amino acids) appreciated by ants and by defensive glands\na substance inhibiting the aggressiveness of ants (Martir\u00e9 <\/a>et al.,<\/em><\/a> 2016)<\/a>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
Stage 4. Caterpillar in the anthill<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
The ants then take the caterpillar into their anthill. The caterpillar will\nbe protected from pests, predators and cared by ants from Lasius alienus, Lasius flavus, Lasius niger,\nFormica subrufa, Formica cinerea, Plagiolepis pygmaea, Myrmica sabuleti,\nMyrmica lobicornis<\/em>) (Lafranchis\n& Kan, 2012; Lewington & Tolman, 2014)<\/a>. Lasius <\/em>is the kind of ant that most associates with Lepidoptera\nLycaenidae<\/em> <\/em>(Martinez,\n2013)<\/a>. In the anthill, the caterpillar consumes some eggs and ant larvae.\nIn exchange, it provides a honeydew (a liquid mixture of sugars and amino\nacids) for ants (Pierce <\/a>et al.<\/em><\/a>,\n2002 ; Martir\u00e9 <\/a>et al<\/em><\/a>., 2016)<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Stage 5. Wintering caterpillar<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Tracks of the latest generation hibernate regardless of their state of growth\nin undergrowth among dead leaves and plant debris (Bellmann,\n2006; Carter & Hargreaves, 2015)<\/a>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
Stage 6. Pupal stage<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
At the end of its development, the caterpillar becomes a chrysalis or nymph.\nPupation corresponds to profound internal evolutions of transformation of\nlarval tissues into imaginal tissues (Bellmann,\n2006)<\/a> and takes place at the base of the host plant for about two weeks in\nthe spring-summer (Carter\n& Hargreaves, 2015)<\/a>. Nymphs have shapes and colors that allow them to\nhide predators among plants (Bellmann,\n2006)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Stage 7. Imago stage<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
The imago (adult butterfly) comes out of the chrysalis after a few days. The\nlast generation caterpillars complete their imago development the following\nspring. The imago has a body called an exoskeleton consisting of a head with\neyes, antennae (olfactory and tactile organs) and a maxillary trunk to suck the\nnectar of several plant species of Papilionaceae<\/em>; a thorax with six\nlegs, four membranous wings covered with scales; and an abdomen with\nreproductive organs and odoriferous organs that produce pheromones (Bellmann,\n2006)<\/a>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
Stage 8. Breeding <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Imagos fly between the end of March and November (Hofmann,\n2007 ; Carter & Hargreaves, 2015 ; Haahtela <\/a>et al.<\/em><\/a>, 2017)<\/a>.\nDuring this period, adults meet through pheromones (substances of sexual\nattraction) secreted by unfertilized females and olfactory organs of males.\nMales catch pheromones for miles and secrete pheromones to mate. Polyommatus\nicarus<\/em> is characterized by the high fertility of females (Bellmann,\n2006)<\/a>. The imagos live a few weeks to a few months. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
At each stage of the life cycle, butterflies are exposed to various predators: mammals, insectivorous birds (eg tits), amphibians, spiders (eg spiders-crabs), insects (eg wasps, hornets) (Bellmann, 2006)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Biology and ecology of the Small Black Ant\nLasius niger<\/em> (Linnaeus, 1758) (Hymenoptera<\/em>, Formicidae<\/em>)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Latin name : <\/strong>Lasius niger<\/em>\n(Linnaeus, 1758)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Vernacular names :<\/strong> Small Black Ant <\/p>\n\n\n\n
Taxonomy: <\/strong>Kingdom: Animalia<\/em>, Phylum: Arthropoda<\/em>, Class: Insecta<\/em>, Order: Hymenoptera<\/em>, Family: Formicidae<\/em>, Genus: Lasius<\/em>, Species: Lasius niger<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Species identification<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Dark brown to black-brown in color, covered with dense silver seta with\nlonger isolated seta, pubescence on dense clypeus (Blatrix <\/a>et al.<\/em><\/a>,\n2013 ; Bellmann, 2016)<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Ants are social insects organized into castes: fertile female queen\nmeasuring 8 to 9 mm; Males whose only function is to fertilize future queens\n3,5-4,5 mm; Sterile female workers 2.5-5 mm (Blatrix <\/a>et al.<\/em><\/a>,\n2013 ; Martinez, 2013; Bellmann, 2016)<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n
![\"\"](\"http:\/\/www.explorecology.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/07\/lasius-niger-1.jpg\")
Worker ant of Lasius <\/em>sp. \u00a9 explorecology.com <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n Geographical distribution: <\/strong>very common in Europe except in the Mediterranean region(Blatrix et al.<\/em>, 2013 ; Bellmann, 2016)<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Biotope: <\/strong>Diversity of rather humid habitats up to 1500 m altitude (meadows, forest edges, various anthropised environments, agricultural areas, urban gardens,…) (Blatrix et al.<\/em>, 2013 ; Bellmann, 2016)<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Life cycle of Lasius niger<\/em> colony<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Lasius niger <\/em>is a monogynous\nspecies, that is to say that the colony has only one queen. The colony is also\nmade up of thousands of workers <\/em>(Blatrix <\/a>et al.<\/em><\/a>, 2013)<\/a>.\nThe life cycle of the colony of Lasius niger<\/em> is divided into 5 stages\nincluding the four stages of development of the ant: egg, larva, nymph, adult\n(queens, males, workers).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
![\"\"](\"http:\/\/www.explorecology.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/07\/Life-cycle-ants-1024x1007.png\")
Life cycle of Lasius niger<\/em> colony \u00a9 explorecology.com <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n Stage 1. Swarming – Breeding<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Swarming is the period of nuptial flight of sexed males and females\n(princesses) that breed from June to September. Swarming is abundant in the\nsecond half of June. Females are fertilized by males and store spermatozoa for\nthe rest of their lives. These females become queens then tear off their wings\nand look for a dark, wet and quiet place to begin the foundation of a new\ncolony (Martinez, 2013; Bellmann, 2016)<\/a>. The\nqueen has a life of about 20 years with a record 28 years in captivity (Martinez,\n2013)<\/a>. After mating, the males die quickly.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Stage 2. Foundation of the colony<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
The queen lays the first eggs that hatch after about ten days. These first\nlarvae are fed by the queen by trophallaxie that is to say by regurgitation of\npre-digested food. The trophallactic food comes from the body reserves of the\nqueen by metabolizing its reserves of fat and the muscles of its wings. The seta\nof larvae facilitate their transport then form a cocoon to the support where\nthey are and become after a few tens of days molting nymphs. Nymphs do not\nfeed. In September, the nymphs give first very small and white workers who\nquickly become dark (Matinez,\n2013)<\/a>. These first workers leave the nest to look for food (honeydew\naphids, dead insects and nectar plant, Martinez,\n2013<\/a>) to feed the queen with trophallaxia and take over the foundation of\nthe colony. The queen then devotes herself exclusively to her reproductive\nfunction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Stage 3. Nest construction<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
The nests are built in the ground, under the stones, or under the bark of\nthe trees leading to the surface with a simple hole and consisting of a small\ndome of earth and fragile mineral particles dug of many galleries. Nests can\nalso be found in urban areas under stones, flowerpots, between sidewalk slabs (Bellmann,\n2016)<\/a>. Their nest can have a rather variable appearance with generally\nelongated galleries. The environmental conditions necessary for the nest are as\nfollows: permanent moisture not excessive, not too hot, ventilated, quiet and\nobscure place. If the humidity is too low the queen, eggs and larvae can be\ndried and die. On the contrary, excess water in the galleries can cause death\nby drowning ants (Martinez,\n2013)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Stage 4. Colony development<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
The young colonies spend their time in their nest. The colony that will have\nthe most workers will survive. After its foundation, the colony develops at an\naccelerated rate: at the end of the first autumn a few tens, at the end of the\nsecond few hundreds and at the end of the third thousands (Martinez,\n2013)<\/a>. Older and tallest workers look for food on the floor and plants for\nthe colony. The diet of this species is omnivorous (Blatrix <\/a>et al.<\/em><\/a>, 2013; Martinez,\n2013)<\/a>. This species looks for aphid honeydew on trees, shrubs and grasses (Blatrix <\/a>et al.<\/em><\/a>,\n2013 ; Bellmann, 2016)<\/a>. It protects the colonies of aphids and\nmealybugs (Blatrix\n<\/a>et\nal.<\/em><\/a>,\n2013)<\/a>. The youngest workers are in charge of the maintenance of the eggs,\nthe feeding of the larvae and the cleaning of the colony. The workers have a\nlife of 1 to 3 years (Martinez,\n2013)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Stage 5. Wintering<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Lasius niger <\/em>is an endogenous\nheterodynamic species that is to say that it has an obligatory stage of\ndormancy or winter diapause obligatory in its cycle. The cessation of laying,\nbrood growth, and colony activity are done according to the internal clock of\nthe colony from mid-October to March. At this stage, there are no more eggs,\nthe larvae winter and pupate the following spring <\/em>(Martinez,\n2013)<\/a>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
Stage 6. Resumption of activity <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
In the following spring, the queen resumes her nesting activity. Eggs of\nwhite color and ellipsoid shape develop into vermiform larvae with tapered body\nand arched forward
- Caterpillar identification<\/strong><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n
- Ants: Lasius niger<\/em>,<\/li>